ASSESSMENT OF RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH SELF-MEDICATION AND ITS HEALTH IMPLICATION AMONG STUDENTS OF EDO STATE UNIVERSITY

TOPIC IS SUITABLE FOR:
1-Department of Public Health
2-Department of Nursing Science
3-Department of Pharmacy

TOPIC: ASSESSMENT OF RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH SELF-MEDICATION AND ITS HEALTH IMPLICATION AMONG STUDENTS OF EDO STATE UNIVERSITY

TABLE OF CONTENT
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Objective of the Study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Research Hypothesis
1.6 Significance of the Study
1.7 Scope of the Study
1.8 Definition of Terms
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Conceptual Framework
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Empirical Review
2.4 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY    
3.1 Research Design    
3.2 Research Setting         
3.3 Target population                                  
3.4 Sample size 
3.5 Sampling technique    
3.6 Instruments for data collection     
3.7 Validity and Reliability of Instrument
3.8. Pilot Study    
3.9 Method of data collection 
3.10 Method of data analysis     
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Data Presentation
4.2 Demographic Analysis 
4.3 Analysis of the Prevalence of Self-Medication among Students of Edo State University
4.4 Analysis of Risk Factors Associated with Self-Medication among Students of Edo State University
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
5.1 Discussion of Findings    
5.2 Implications of findings to nursing                            
5.3 Limitations of the study                            
5.4 Summary of the study                                      
5.5 Conclusion                                    
5.6 Recommendations                                 
5.7 Suggestions for further studies   
References
Appendix

ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to examine the assessment of risk factors associated with self-medication and its health implications among students of Edo State University. The study was specifically carried out to assess the prevalence of self-medication among students of Edo State University, determine the risk factors associated with self-medication among students, identify the drugs commonly self-medicated, and examine the health implications associated with self-medication among students of Edo State University. The study employed the survey descriptive research design. Hence, the questionnaire was used for data collection, while the data collected were analyzed using frequency tables, percentages, and logistic regression analysis. A total population of 3,200 students was used, while a sample size of 356 was determined using Taro Yamane formula and a validated sample size of 341 respondents was used for final analysis. The participants consisted of undergraduate students across different faculties and levels of study in Edo State University. Multi-stage sampling technique involving stratified and convenience sampling was adopted for the study. From the responses obtained and analyzed, the findings revealed that self-medication is highly prevalent among students, with 61.5% of respondents engaging in self-medication practices, 65.4% treating minor illnesses independently, and 63.9% relying on previous prescriptions. The study also showed that risk factors such as easy access to medicines (65.4%), high cost of hospital consultation (64.2%), and peer influence (48.7%) significantly influence self-medication behavior. Furthermore, analgesics (65.7%), antimalarial drugs (62.5%), and cough medications (61.3%) were the most commonly self-medicated drugs among students. The health implications analysis revealed that 64.5% of respondents experienced adverse health effects, 63.3% reported drug resistance, and 42.8% had complications requiring hospital attention. Logistic regression results confirmed that all identified risk factors and health implications were statistically significant at p < 0.05, leading to rejection of the null hypotheses. The study therefore recommends that Edo State University should intensify health education campaigns, improve access to affordable healthcare services, regulate drug sales around campus, and strengthen student health awareness programs to reduce unsafe self-medication practices.
Keywords: Self-medication, Risk factors, Health implications, Students, Edo State University.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION (Preview)
1.1 Background of the Study
Self-medication practices are then placed in the context of the wider determinants of behaviour which impact on personal health decisions. Health related behaviors are not random, but are cognitively, socially and environmentally organized behaviors that affect the way in which people process information about illness and choose therapeutic behaviors. These behaviour determinants are perceived threats to health, benefits of health behaviours, and control over health outcomes which all influence decision-making processes in the use of health services. Jenssen et al. (2025) highlighted the close relationship between health behaviour and cognitive appraisal processes and contextual reinforcements which impact how decision-making is carried out. In a similar vein, Kuja-Halkola et al. (2021) pointed out the important role of both genes and environment in determining health management behaviour tendencies. In this system, people can sometimes judge symptoms in a subjective way and decide on the action they need to take based on their knowledge of the options available, and their accessibility. Torok et al. (2022) continued to uphold the idea that people's behaviour in relation to health issues was often based more on psychological interpretation and situations than on a clinical assessment. This "cognition and environment" interaction thus forms a basic explanation for the independent medication practices of individuals.
Risk factors for self-medication are crucial components of the spectrum of behavioural responses, influencing not only how often, but also how self-medication is done. These factors are complex and can encompass demographic factors, access to education, access to medication, peer pressure and previous exposure to pharmacological treatments. They work together to raise the chances of people going without formal medical advice and seeking out self-help treatment methods. In the context of health-related behaviours, Montano and Kasprzyk (2025) noted that attitudes, perceived norms and perceived behavioural control all play significant roles in determining behavioural intentions, which, in turn, can influence decision-making processes. Rodriguez-Arrastia et al. (2024) also showed that health behaviours are shaped by a mix of psychosocial and contextual factors, which interact with each other in determining individual behaviour. Furthermore, Bedaiwi et al. (2024) highlighted that the accessibility of pharmaceutical products and the acceptance of self-care practices were among the factors contributing to the reinforcement of self-medication behaviours. These risk factors are not independent of each other, but are interdependent, which makes up complex behavioural patterns affecting the way people deal with their health conditions.
The implications of the use of self-medication can be manifested in physiological, psychological and behavioural aspects of health outcomes. As an easy and quick way to treat minor ailments, the effects of self-medication rely on the accuracy of self-diagnosis, the drug choice and compliance to recommended doses. Llamocca et al (2022) argued that while self-care practices, such as self-medication, could have both positive and negative impacts, it could be limited by the knowledge and judgment of the individuals. Razaq et al. (2023) also reported that the effects of self-medication were significantly related to the users' knowledge about the use and interaction of drugs. However, Hartstone et al., (2022) noted that behavioural patterns over time had a significant impact on health outcomes, showing how self-directed healthcare decisions over time contributed to overall health outcomes. In a similar observation, Ougrin et al. (2020) reported that young adults would frequently exhibit changes in their health behaviour consistent with the changes in developmental phase and the move toward self-reliance in choices. Thus, self-medication health implications should be framed in a wider perspective of behavioural development and health care literacy.
University campuses, especially the undergraduate population, are influenced by academic and social factors and a growing autonomy in health-related choices that can affect the use of self-medication. Students are likely to have a greater responsibility for their own health and to have to deal with restricted access and time to formal healthcare services. Bhaskar and Kharpuri (2024) noted that in the current education system, the young people were more dependent on self-directed health practices. Jenssen et al. (2025) also highlighted that autonomy in behaviour in relation to health issues is more likely to increase during life transitions, like when a person is in university. The population of students at Edo State University, where there are likely to be multiple health information sources and different health literacy levels, is likely to exhibit these behavioural dynamics. The intersection of the risk factors and behavioural factors in this context highlights the need to study on self-medication among students. Hence, it is relevant to understand the proclivities of risk factors and health implication among Edo State University students to assess the contemporary health behaviours in academia.

1.2 Statement of the Problem
The growing independence of individual people in making health-related decisions has continued to influence health care use among various populations. In this changing landscape, the importance of self-care has grown as well — especially for young adults who are leaving home for school and college life. The university environment is a special place, where students are under academic pressure, social influence and with little supervision, all of which affect health behaviours and thus how students manage their own health. The role of perception and exposure to an individual's environment in shaping health-related behaviours was stressed by Hartstone et al., (2022) and Jurek et al., (2021), and it was observed how easy access to information is affecting people's choices of health care by Bhaskar and Kharpuri, (2024). Even with this newfound independence, it is important to have a framework for comprehending and evaluating students' viewpoints and actions about health-related decisions in educational environments, especially regarding medication and self-directed treatment.
In the modern educational context, self-medication is a common fact in the daily life of students due to more opportunities of contact with pharmaceutical products and to the easy access to health information. Self-medication is the practice of using medicines without a prescription from a health care professional, usually for self-diagnosed common ailments, and is influenced by personal opinion, convenience and experiences with medication. Llamocca et al. (2022) and Bedaiwi et al. (2024) found that self-medication is an important part of the self-care behaviour of young people and Razaq et al. (2023) observed that it has become a common part of their daily health routines. Ideally, though, medications should be used in a rational way, with professional advice and guidance on their use to ensure safety, correct dosage and appropriate diagnosis. This is because the use of unsupervised medication was still being practiced among the students, which indicates that there is a gap between recommended health care standards and the actual behaviour of students. This discrepancy is a matter of concern in terms of the level of health awareness and compliance to regulations in the university settings.
Although, there is increasing popularity of self-medication, the understanding of the risk factors that could affect the practice and the health implications of self-medication among university students could not be investigated. Ideally, medicines should be used to suit the medical needs of the student but in reality, students may follow their peer's advice or receive prescriptions from a past student or follow an unverified source of information. Jenssen et al. (2025) and Kuja-Halkola et al. (2021) showed that the cognitive, social and environmental factors influence behavioral health decisions, and Rodriguez-Arrastia et al. (2024) argued that these behaviours may negatively impact health if not managed properly. The existing literature is lacking in contextual evidence, on how these factors specifically influence students of Edo State University. The study has therefore aimed at filling this gap by systematically examining risk factors for self-medication and their health consequences among students and to provide evidence on which targeted interventions can be based in order to foster safe medication practices.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to critically assess the risk factors associated with self-medication and its health implication among students of Edo State University.  Specifically, the study seeks; 
1.Assess the prevalence of self-medication among students of Edo State University.
2.Assess the risk factors associated with self-medication among students of Edo State University.
3.Identify the drugs commonly self-medicated among students of Edo State University.
4.Assess the health implications associated with self-medication among students of Edo State University.
OTHER PARTS OF CHAPTER ONE INCLUDE:
1.4 Research Question (s)
1.5 Research Hypotheses
1.6 Significance of the Study
1.7 Scope of the Study
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms:

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE (Preview)
This chapter critically examines relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and, furthermore, recognizes the efforts of scholars who have previously contributed to studies related to self-medication and its health implications. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and address the perceived gaps. This chapter, therefore, focuses on the concept of self-medication, risk factors associated with self-medication, prevalence and causes of self-medication, health implications of self-medication, and self-medication practices among university students. The chapter covers the following subheadings:
2.1 Conceptual Framework
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Empirical Review
2.4 Summary of Literature Review

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY (Preview)
Research Design: The study adopted a descriptive research design.
Population of the Study: The population of the study comprises all undergraduate students of Edo State University, Uzairue, Edo State, Nigeria.
Sample Size Determination: The study adopted the Taro Yamane formula to determine a sample size of 356 participants.
Sampling Technique: The study employed a multi-stage sampling technique to select the individual respondents.
Research Instrument: The study utilized a structured questionnaire as the instrument for data collection.
Methods of Data Analysis: The collected data were analyzed using frequencies and percentages to summarize and present the demographic characteristics of the respondents and their responses. Inferential statistics, such as Logistic Regression, were used to test the hypotheses.

CHAPTER FOUR; DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
MAJOR FINDINGS (Preview)
The analysis results were presented in tables. Based on the results obtained from the analysis, the following findings are made:

i. The study found that self-medication is prevalent among students of Edo State University, as 61.5% of respondents agreed that they often take medicines without consulting a healthcare professional when unwell, while 65.4% agreed that they usually treat minor illnesses independently. The findings further revealed that 63.9% of respondents rely on previous prescriptions to treat similar symptoms, indicating a high prevalence of self-medication practices among the students.

ii. The study found that easy access to medicines and the high cost of hospital consultation are major risk factors associated with self-medication among students of Edo State University, as 65.4% of respondents agreed that easy access to medicines increases their likelihood of self-medication, while 64.2% agreed that high consultation costs make them prefer self-medication. The corresponding hypothesis test using logistic regression showed that easy access to medicines (B = 0.842, p = 0.000) and high consultation costs (B = 0.793, p = 0.000) were significant predictors of self-medication, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

iii. The study found that analgesics, antimalarial drugs, cough syrups, and cold medicines were commonly used for self-medication among students of Edo State University, as 65.7% of respondents agreed that they commonly use analgesics such as paracetamol for pain or fever, while 62.5% agreed that they frequently use antimalarial drugs when they suspect malaria symptoms. Furthermore, 61.3% agreed that they often use cough syrups and cold medicines without prescription, indicating that these drugs are commonly used for self-treatment among the students.

iv. The study found that self-medication is associated with adverse health implications among students of Edo State University, as 64.5% of respondents agreed that self-medication had caused adverse health effects such as side effects or complications, while 63.3% agreed that they had experienced drug resistance or reduced drug effectiveness due to self-medication. The corresponding hypothesis test using logistic regression showed that adverse health effects (B = 0.918, p = 0.000) and drug resistance or reduced drug effectiveness (B = 0.856, p = 0.000) were statistically significant, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
This chapter covers the following outline:
5.1 Discussion of Findings
5.2 Implication of the Findings 
5.3 Limitations of the Study 
5.4 Summary 
5.5 Conclusion
5.6 Recommendations
5.7 Suggestions for Further Studies

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